Most secular historians and higher critics, and some contemporary Jewish and Christian scholars, hold that the Book of Daniel was written approximately 165 BCE as a vaticinium ex eventu of the events leading up to that era. [22] The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great, the wars between his successors; the Seleucids and the Ptolemys (the King(s) of the North and the King(s) of the South), and the desecration of the Jerusalem temple by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes are described in detail in chapters 8 and 11. The four kingdoms are viewed as four empires that the author believed had ruled from the time of the mythic Daniel until the time of Antiochus:
the Neo-Babylonian Empire
the Median Empire, anachronistically implied in the Book of Daniel to be the successor to the Neo-Babylonian Empire rather than contemporaneous.
the Achaemenid Persian Empire
the Macedonian (Greek) Empire of Alexander, and continuing through the Diadochi, the successors to Alexander's empire, in particular the Seleucid Empire, up until the time of Antiochus, who is the "little horn" king of chapters 7 and 8.
"Four kingdoms" are mentioned again in chapter 8, now referring to the kingdoms of the four main successors to Alexander's empire, (the Diadochi, also mentioned in 11:4): Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander.