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ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF. A midrash based on the text of Genesis 15 presented in the form of revelation. The title of the book is preserved only in manuscript S (Codex Silvester), where it runs as follows: “The Book of the Revelation of Abraham, son of Terah, son of Nahor, son of Serug, son of Arphaxad, son of Shem, son of Noah, son of Lamech, son of Methusaleh, son of Enoch, son of Jared.”
A. Contents
The main subject of the book is the election of Abraham and the covenant between God and Abraham and his descendants. Chapters 1–8 tell about the call of Abraham out of the midst of idolaters. After a deep reflection on the various forms of their idolatry, Abraham wants to know the true God who created the universe. God then appears to him in the form of fire and commands him to leave the home of his father Terah and to sacrifice a heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtledove, and a pigeon (Genesis 15) on the high mountain. Chapters 9–32 describe Abraham’s journey to the mount of Horeb, the offering of the sacrifice, and the visions imparted to him. Abraham sees, among other things, the seven sins of the world (24:3–25:2) and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (27:1–12). God announces to him the punishment of the Gentiles and of the sinners belonging to the people of Israel (chap. 29). The vision of the “man going out from the left, the heathen side” (29:4) foretells the test of the people of God in the last days of this age. Before the age of justice, God will afflict “all earthly creation” with ten plagues (29:15, 30:2–8) and afterward send his Elect One, who will summon the people of God (31:1). Sinners will be punished and the righteous will triumph forever (chap. 32).
B. The Text
The Apocalypse of Abraham (Apoc. Ab.) is preserved only in Old Church Slavonic translation. According to common opinion, it was translated from Greek around A.D. 900 in Bulgaria, although translation from a Semitic original cannot be excluded (see below). The Old Church Slavonic copies of the text were very soon transferred, probably by monks, from Bulgaria to Russia and there diffused within some centuries in different transcripts. This fact explains why the present text of the book is influenced by the old Russian language. All nine extant manuscripts containing this pseudepigraphon are preserved in the museums and the libraries of the U.S.S.R. The oldest manuscript is the Codex Silvester (14th century), which is characterized by many omissions owing mostly to inadvertance of the copyists; the text itself is incomplete. The best text is preserved in manuscript B, which belongs to the Synodal Paleja Tolkovaja (Sin 211, Gosudarstvennyj Istoričeskij Muzej 869, fols. 76–90, Moscow) and dates to the 16th century (see Philonenko-Sayer and Philonenko 1981; Rubinkiewicz 1977; 1987).
C. The Integrity of the Text
Most critics distinguish two parts in the Apocalypse of Abraham: the haggadic section (chaps. 1–8) and the apocalyptic section (chaps. 9–32). The two sections were probably written by different authors. Later, the two documents were most likely joined together into a single work. It seems, however, that only chapter 7 did not belong to the original text of the pseudepigraphon, and maybe also chapter 23 (the description of the sin of Adam and Eve, which undoubtedly reflects Jewish sources; the chapter could have been introduced into the Apocalypse of Abraham from another pseudepigraphon). A special problem is presented by Apoc. Ab. 29:4–13. Generally one assumes that the Man “going out from the left, the heathen side” (29:4), worshipped by the great crowd of the heathen, and insulted by some of the people of Israel, represents the figure of Jesus. Therefore, some critics claim that this passage is a Christian interpolation (ANRW 2/19/1: 137–51) or that it could be a “Jewish view of Jesus as an apostle to the heathen” (EncJud 1: 125–27). However, an exact analysis of the vision in Apoc. Ab. 29:4–13 proves that it must be original, and that it “has little in common with a Christian view of Jesus but recalls the beast in Rev 13:1–4” (Hall 1988). The heathen man may be identified as the Roman emperor. Only “the phrase identifying the man who is worshiped as a child of Abraham (29:9b) must be understood as a gloss, probably by a Christian interpolator who found Christ in the author’s ‘antichrist’ ” (Hall 1988).
In addition to these three passages, we may note some glosses, perhaps because of the Bogomil editor (ANRW 2/19/1: 137–51; Rubinkiewicz 1987; contrary Philonenko-Sayar and Philonenko 1981). The very strange statement that Abraham’s issue are “the people (associated) with Azazel” must be understood in the light of the gloss “ljudii s Azazilomû sii sout” (22:5), “this is the people with Azazel,” found in one of the manuscripts in the correct form. In the other manuscripts it is slightly different and incorporated into the main phrase. This fact explains the strange association of Azazel with the people of God and is in the spirit of the medieval slavonic sect of the Bogomils.
D. Original Language
The original language of the Apocalypse of Abraham was undoubtedly Semitic, either Aramaic or Hebrew. Many Semitisms are found in the text which cannot be explained simply by the influence of Septuagintal style. For example, Apoc. Ab. uses the positive instead of the comparative, indicating a Semitic original. The awkward Slavonic construction “heavy of (a big stone)” (1:5) renders Semitic kbd mn, which should be interpreted “heavier than (a big stone).” Also, prepositions are sometimes used according to Hebrew rather than Slavonic syntax (e.g., 8:4; 12:10; see Rubinkiewicz 1980).
E. Date and Origin
The Apocalypse of Abraham was written after A.D. 70, as is evident from its reference to the destruction of the Temple. If one assumes that plagues 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, (Apoc. Ab. 30:4–8) refer to the events from A.D. 69 and 70, and that plagues 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 (Apoc. Ab. 30:4–8) refer to the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, then it may be surmised that the text was composed between A.D. 79–81. This opinion is reinforced by the symbolic interpretation of the haggadic material found in Apoc. Ab. 1–6 (the idols symbolize the hostile kingdoms and kings: Marumat = Rome, Barisat = Babylon, [Su]zuch = Persia, “five other gods” = Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, and Titus), but this explanation must remain hypothetical (see Rubinkiewicz 1982).
The author of Apoc. Ab. belonged to the priestly environment. Some doctrinal affinities of the text with the Qumran writings—e.g., the opinion regarding the High Priest in the Temple, the liturgical milieu of the pseudepigraphon concentrated around the Feast of Tabernacles as the Feast of the renewal of the Covenant, and predeterminism contained in the text of this work—show at least some dependency on Essene doctrine. Despite these similarities, there is no convincing argument that the author of Apoc. Ab. was an Essene. The views expressed in the pseudepigraphon correspond equally well to the concepts represented by the priestly environment of Palestine in general, not just the Essene environment.
F. Theology
God is eternal (9:3) and He is the God who protects Abraham and his issue (9:4). He has created the universe, has elected Israel, has called her “my people” (22:5; 31:1), and will give her the victory over her enemies (31:1–2).
Angelology plays an important part in the pseudepigraphon. The most eminent person is the angel of God, Iaoel. His features resemble certain features of the Angel of God in Exod 23:20–23. His fundamental role is to protect and fortify Abraham (10:3). The chief of the fallen angels is Azazel (13:7). His power is on the earth (13:7–8; 14:6), but it is not unlimited; for example, Azazel has no power over the just (13:10).
The world is divided into two parts: (1) the land and the garden of Eden, and (2) the upper and lower waters. In the same way, mankind is divided into the people of God (Israel) and the Gentiles (21:3–7). However, there is no ontological dualism in Apoc. Ab. The world created by God is good (22:2). There is no other God except that one for whom Abraham searched and who is beloved (19:3). There is evil in the world, but it is not unavoidable. God has full control over the development of events and does not allow the body of the just man to fall under the control of Azazel (13:10). Azazel is wrong if he thinks that he may scoff at justice and disclose the secrets of heaven (14:4). He will be punished and banished to the desert, where he will remain forever (14:5).
The age of wickedness will consist of “twelve periods” (29:2). After this age comes the last judgment, preceded by the redemption of the righteous. First, however, ten plagues will affect all the world (29:15; 30:2–8). Then God will send his “Elect One” (31:1) and will gather the dispersed people of God. At this time, the Gentiles who oppressed Israel will be punished (31:2) and the apostates will be burned by the fire of Azazel’s tongue (31:6). The Temple will be rebuilt and the cult restored (29:17–18). There is no explicit doctrine of the resurrection in the pseudepigraphon. However, this idea may be suggested by the symbol of the dew (19:4) and by the conviction expressed in 13:10 that the body of the just will not belong to Azazel. This may be connected with the exegesis of Ps 16:10, a Psalm utilized by Christians to prove the resurrection of Jesus (Acts 2:27).
G. The Apocalypse of Abraham and the Bible
The books of Genesis and Ezekiel play fundamental roles in Apoc. Ab. The author begins his work with an allusion to Gen 20:13, adduced in light of targumic exegesis, and closes with reference to Gen 15:13–16 (Apoc. Ab. 32:1–3). Apoc. Ab. 8:4 and 9:1–4 reflect the expression contained in Gen 12:1 and 15:1 seen in the light of Ps 22:2–3 and Deut 33:29. The author quotes Gen 15:9 (Apoc. Ab. 9:5) and employs the image of Gen 15:17a (Apoc. Ab. 15:1). The text of Apoc. Ab. 20:4 reminds one of Gen 18:27 and that of Apoc. Ab. 20:6 alludes to Gen 18:30. Apoc. Ab. 18–19 is based on Ezekiel 1, 10. Abraham sees four living creatures (Apoc. Ab. 18:3–12; cf. Ezek 3:12–13), the throne (Apoc. Ab. 18:3; cf. Ezek 1:26), and the Divine Chariot (Apoc. Ab. 18:12; cf. Ezekiel 1, 10).
There is no direct relation between the Apocalypse of Abraham and the NT. There are nonetheless many parallel expressions which show that the authors drew from the same tradition (for example, Apoc. Ab. 13:3–14 and Matt 4:1–11 par; Apoc. Ab. 9:5–8; 12:1–10 and Gal 4:21–31; Apoc. Ab. 18:11 and Rev 5:9; see Rubinkiewicz 1987).
H. The Apocalypse of Abraham and the Pseudepigrapha
The author of Apoc. Ab. follows the tradition of 1 Enoch 1–36. The chief of the fallen angels is Azazel who rules over the stars and the main part of humanity. It is easy to find here the tradition of Gen 6:1–4 developed in 1 Enoch. Azazel rebelled against God and, together with the other angels, united sexually with the daughters of men. He disclosed the secrets of heaven and caused great misfortune on earth. Therefore, he was expelled to the desert. Abraham, like Enoch, receives the power to tame Satan (Apoc. Ab. 14:3; 1 En. 14:3). The tradition of 1 Enoch 10 about Azazel underlying Apoc. Ab. 13–14 permits us to understand better the difficult text of Matt 22:11–14 (see Rubinkiewicz 1984).
The Apocalypse of Abraham, with its Palestinian origin, early date of composition, common tradition with 1 Enoch, and connections with NT writings, finds a place for itself among the most significant works of the Jewish world in the 1st century A.D.
Bibliography
Charlesworth, J. H. 1976. The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research. SCS 7. Missoula.
Denis, A.-M. 1970. Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d’Ancien Testament. SVTP 1. Leiden.
Hall, R. G. 1988. The “Christian Interpolation” in the Apocalypse of Abraham. JBL 107: 107–10.
Lunt, H. 1985. On the Language of the Slavonic Apocalypse of Abraham. Studia Hierosolymitana 7: 55–62.
Philonenko-Sayar, B., and Philonenko, M. 1981. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham. Sem 31.
———. 1982. Die Apocalypse Abrahams. JSHRZ 5. Gütersloh.
Rubinkiewicz, R. 1977. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham en slave. 2 vols. Diss. Rome [typescript].
———. 1980. Les sémitismes dans l’Apocalypse d’Abraham. Folia Orientalia 21: 141–48.
———. 1982. Apokalipsa Abrahama 1–6: Propozycja interpretacji symbolicznej. RocTKan 29/1: 79–94.
———. 1984. Die Eschatologie von Henoch 9–11 und das Neue Testament. ÖBS 6. Klosterneuburg.
———. 1987. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham en vieux slave. Lublin.
Rubinstein, A. 1953. Hebraisms in the Slavonic “Apocalypse of Abraham.” JJS 4: 108–15.
———. 1954. Hebraisms in the “Apocalypse of Abraham.” JJS 5: 132–35.
———. 1957. A Problematic Passage in the Apocalypse of Abraham. JJS.
A. Contents
The main subject of the book is the election of Abraham and the covenant between God and Abraham and his descendants. Chapters 1–8 tell about the call of Abraham out of the midst of idolaters. After a deep reflection on the various forms of their idolatry, Abraham wants to know the true God who created the universe. God then appears to him in the form of fire and commands him to leave the home of his father Terah and to sacrifice a heifer, a she-goat, a ram, a turtledove, and a pigeon (Genesis 15) on the high mountain. Chapters 9–32 describe Abraham’s journey to the mount of Horeb, the offering of the sacrifice, and the visions imparted to him. Abraham sees, among other things, the seven sins of the world (24:3–25:2) and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (27:1–12). God announces to him the punishment of the Gentiles and of the sinners belonging to the people of Israel (chap. 29). The vision of the “man going out from the left, the heathen side” (29:4) foretells the test of the people of God in the last days of this age. Before the age of justice, God will afflict “all earthly creation” with ten plagues (29:15, 30:2–8) and afterward send his Elect One, who will summon the people of God (31:1). Sinners will be punished and the righteous will triumph forever (chap. 32).
B. The Text
The Apocalypse of Abraham (Apoc. Ab.) is preserved only in Old Church Slavonic translation. According to common opinion, it was translated from Greek around A.D. 900 in Bulgaria, although translation from a Semitic original cannot be excluded (see below). The Old Church Slavonic copies of the text were very soon transferred, probably by monks, from Bulgaria to Russia and there diffused within some centuries in different transcripts. This fact explains why the present text of the book is influenced by the old Russian language. All nine extant manuscripts containing this pseudepigraphon are preserved in the museums and the libraries of the U.S.S.R. The oldest manuscript is the Codex Silvester (14th century), which is characterized by many omissions owing mostly to inadvertance of the copyists; the text itself is incomplete. The best text is preserved in manuscript B, which belongs to the Synodal Paleja Tolkovaja (Sin 211, Gosudarstvennyj Istoričeskij Muzej 869, fols. 76–90, Moscow) and dates to the 16th century (see Philonenko-Sayer and Philonenko 1981; Rubinkiewicz 1977; 1987).
C. The Integrity of the Text
Most critics distinguish two parts in the Apocalypse of Abraham: the haggadic section (chaps. 1–8) and the apocalyptic section (chaps. 9–32). The two sections were probably written by different authors. Later, the two documents were most likely joined together into a single work. It seems, however, that only chapter 7 did not belong to the original text of the pseudepigraphon, and maybe also chapter 23 (the description of the sin of Adam and Eve, which undoubtedly reflects Jewish sources; the chapter could have been introduced into the Apocalypse of Abraham from another pseudepigraphon). A special problem is presented by Apoc. Ab. 29:4–13. Generally one assumes that the Man “going out from the left, the heathen side” (29:4), worshipped by the great crowd of the heathen, and insulted by some of the people of Israel, represents the figure of Jesus. Therefore, some critics claim that this passage is a Christian interpolation (ANRW 2/19/1: 137–51) or that it could be a “Jewish view of Jesus as an apostle to the heathen” (EncJud 1: 125–27). However, an exact analysis of the vision in Apoc. Ab. 29:4–13 proves that it must be original, and that it “has little in common with a Christian view of Jesus but recalls the beast in Rev 13:1–4” (Hall 1988). The heathen man may be identified as the Roman emperor. Only “the phrase identifying the man who is worshiped as a child of Abraham (29:9b) must be understood as a gloss, probably by a Christian interpolator who found Christ in the author’s ‘antichrist’ ” (Hall 1988).
In addition to these three passages, we may note some glosses, perhaps because of the Bogomil editor (ANRW 2/19/1: 137–51; Rubinkiewicz 1987; contrary Philonenko-Sayar and Philonenko 1981). The very strange statement that Abraham’s issue are “the people (associated) with Azazel” must be understood in the light of the gloss “ljudii s Azazilomû sii sout” (22:5), “this is the people with Azazel,” found in one of the manuscripts in the correct form. In the other manuscripts it is slightly different and incorporated into the main phrase. This fact explains the strange association of Azazel with the people of God and is in the spirit of the medieval slavonic sect of the Bogomils.
D. Original Language
The original language of the Apocalypse of Abraham was undoubtedly Semitic, either Aramaic or Hebrew. Many Semitisms are found in the text which cannot be explained simply by the influence of Septuagintal style. For example, Apoc. Ab. uses the positive instead of the comparative, indicating a Semitic original. The awkward Slavonic construction “heavy of (a big stone)” (1:5) renders Semitic kbd mn, which should be interpreted “heavier than (a big stone).” Also, prepositions are sometimes used according to Hebrew rather than Slavonic syntax (e.g., 8:4; 12:10; see Rubinkiewicz 1980).
E. Date and Origin
The Apocalypse of Abraham was written after A.D. 70, as is evident from its reference to the destruction of the Temple. If one assumes that plagues 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, (Apoc. Ab. 30:4–8) refer to the events from A.D. 69 and 70, and that plagues 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 (Apoc. Ab. 30:4–8) refer to the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, then it may be surmised that the text was composed between A.D. 79–81. This opinion is reinforced by the symbolic interpretation of the haggadic material found in Apoc. Ab. 1–6 (the idols symbolize the hostile kingdoms and kings: Marumat = Rome, Barisat = Babylon, [Su]zuch = Persia, “five other gods” = Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, and Titus), but this explanation must remain hypothetical (see Rubinkiewicz 1982).
The author of Apoc. Ab. belonged to the priestly environment. Some doctrinal affinities of the text with the Qumran writings—e.g., the opinion regarding the High Priest in the Temple, the liturgical milieu of the pseudepigraphon concentrated around the Feast of Tabernacles as the Feast of the renewal of the Covenant, and predeterminism contained in the text of this work—show at least some dependency on Essene doctrine. Despite these similarities, there is no convincing argument that the author of Apoc. Ab. was an Essene. The views expressed in the pseudepigraphon correspond equally well to the concepts represented by the priestly environment of Palestine in general, not just the Essene environment.
F. Theology
God is eternal (9:3) and He is the God who protects Abraham and his issue (9:4). He has created the universe, has elected Israel, has called her “my people” (22:5; 31:1), and will give her the victory over her enemies (31:1–2).
Angelology plays an important part in the pseudepigraphon. The most eminent person is the angel of God, Iaoel. His features resemble certain features of the Angel of God in Exod 23:20–23. His fundamental role is to protect and fortify Abraham (10:3). The chief of the fallen angels is Azazel (13:7). His power is on the earth (13:7–8; 14:6), but it is not unlimited; for example, Azazel has no power over the just (13:10).
The world is divided into two parts: (1) the land and the garden of Eden, and (2) the upper and lower waters. In the same way, mankind is divided into the people of God (Israel) and the Gentiles (21:3–7). However, there is no ontological dualism in Apoc. Ab. The world created by God is good (22:2). There is no other God except that one for whom Abraham searched and who is beloved (19:3). There is evil in the world, but it is not unavoidable. God has full control over the development of events and does not allow the body of the just man to fall under the control of Azazel (13:10). Azazel is wrong if he thinks that he may scoff at justice and disclose the secrets of heaven (14:4). He will be punished and banished to the desert, where he will remain forever (14:5).
The age of wickedness will consist of “twelve periods” (29:2). After this age comes the last judgment, preceded by the redemption of the righteous. First, however, ten plagues will affect all the world (29:15; 30:2–8). Then God will send his “Elect One” (31:1) and will gather the dispersed people of God. At this time, the Gentiles who oppressed Israel will be punished (31:2) and the apostates will be burned by the fire of Azazel’s tongue (31:6). The Temple will be rebuilt and the cult restored (29:17–18). There is no explicit doctrine of the resurrection in the pseudepigraphon. However, this idea may be suggested by the symbol of the dew (19:4) and by the conviction expressed in 13:10 that the body of the just will not belong to Azazel. This may be connected with the exegesis of Ps 16:10, a Psalm utilized by Christians to prove the resurrection of Jesus (Acts 2:27).
G. The Apocalypse of Abraham and the Bible
The books of Genesis and Ezekiel play fundamental roles in Apoc. Ab. The author begins his work with an allusion to Gen 20:13, adduced in light of targumic exegesis, and closes with reference to Gen 15:13–16 (Apoc. Ab. 32:1–3). Apoc. Ab. 8:4 and 9:1–4 reflect the expression contained in Gen 12:1 and 15:1 seen in the light of Ps 22:2–3 and Deut 33:29. The author quotes Gen 15:9 (Apoc. Ab. 9:5) and employs the image of Gen 15:17a (Apoc. Ab. 15:1). The text of Apoc. Ab. 20:4 reminds one of Gen 18:27 and that of Apoc. Ab. 20:6 alludes to Gen 18:30. Apoc. Ab. 18–19 is based on Ezekiel 1, 10. Abraham sees four living creatures (Apoc. Ab. 18:3–12; cf. Ezek 3:12–13), the throne (Apoc. Ab. 18:3; cf. Ezek 1:26), and the Divine Chariot (Apoc. Ab. 18:12; cf. Ezekiel 1, 10).
There is no direct relation between the Apocalypse of Abraham and the NT. There are nonetheless many parallel expressions which show that the authors drew from the same tradition (for example, Apoc. Ab. 13:3–14 and Matt 4:1–11 par; Apoc. Ab. 9:5–8; 12:1–10 and Gal 4:21–31; Apoc. Ab. 18:11 and Rev 5:9; see Rubinkiewicz 1987).
H. The Apocalypse of Abraham and the Pseudepigrapha
The author of Apoc. Ab. follows the tradition of 1 Enoch 1–36. The chief of the fallen angels is Azazel who rules over the stars and the main part of humanity. It is easy to find here the tradition of Gen 6:1–4 developed in 1 Enoch. Azazel rebelled against God and, together with the other angels, united sexually with the daughters of men. He disclosed the secrets of heaven and caused great misfortune on earth. Therefore, he was expelled to the desert. Abraham, like Enoch, receives the power to tame Satan (Apoc. Ab. 14:3; 1 En. 14:3). The tradition of 1 Enoch 10 about Azazel underlying Apoc. Ab. 13–14 permits us to understand better the difficult text of Matt 22:11–14 (see Rubinkiewicz 1984).
The Apocalypse of Abraham, with its Palestinian origin, early date of composition, common tradition with 1 Enoch, and connections with NT writings, finds a place for itself among the most significant works of the Jewish world in the 1st century A.D.
Bibliography
Charlesworth, J. H. 1976. The Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research. SCS 7. Missoula.
Denis, A.-M. 1970. Introduction aux pseudepigraphes grecs d’Ancien Testament. SVTP 1. Leiden.
Hall, R. G. 1988. The “Christian Interpolation” in the Apocalypse of Abraham. JBL 107: 107–10.
Lunt, H. 1985. On the Language of the Slavonic Apocalypse of Abraham. Studia Hierosolymitana 7: 55–62.
Philonenko-Sayar, B., and Philonenko, M. 1981. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham. Sem 31.
———. 1982. Die Apocalypse Abrahams. JSHRZ 5. Gütersloh.
Rubinkiewicz, R. 1977. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham en slave. 2 vols. Diss. Rome [typescript].
———. 1980. Les sémitismes dans l’Apocalypse d’Abraham. Folia Orientalia 21: 141–48.
———. 1982. Apokalipsa Abrahama 1–6: Propozycja interpretacji symbolicznej. RocTKan 29/1: 79–94.
———. 1984. Die Eschatologie von Henoch 9–11 und das Neue Testament. ÖBS 6. Klosterneuburg.
———. 1987. L’Apocalypse d’Abraham en vieux slave. Lublin.
Rubinstein, A. 1953. Hebraisms in the Slavonic “Apocalypse of Abraham.” JJS 4: 108–15.
———. 1954. Hebraisms in the “Apocalypse of Abraham.” JJS 5: 132–35.
———. 1957. A Problematic Passage in the Apocalypse of Abraham. JJS.
RYSZARD RUBINKIEWICZ
