All you really need to know about the twelve tribes is they were joined back together after their return from Babylon under the leadership of Judah, similar to the way it was prior to them splitting into two nations. Moses prophesied of this gathering, or restoration:
"The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be." -- Gen 49:10
The Septuagint (LXX), which is the Greek version of the old testament often quoted by Jesus and his disciples, was translated about 275 BC
during the restoration. It explains the gathering of the people under Judah, which fulfilled the prophecy of Moses:
"Then shalt thou say to them, Thus saith the Lord; behold, I will take the tribe of Joseph, which is in the hand of Ephraim, and the tribes of Israel that belong to him, and I will add them to the tribe of Juda, and they shall become one rod in the hand of Juda." (Eze 37:19 LXX)
You will not find that kind of understanding from the newer Masoretic text that most modern translations use, such as the King James Version. But since the narrative of the Septuagint does not fit many of the more recently invented doctrines, such as dispensationalism, it is often ignored or even written off.
But the Masoretic text does contain a good understanding of the rejoining of the two nations and the restoration in the historical book of Ezra, beginning with the decree of Cyrus where he proclaimed that all of God's people could return to the land to help build the temple:
"Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, The Lord God of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth; and he hath charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Who is there among you of all his people? his God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house of the Lord God of Israel, (he is the God,) which is in Jerusalem. And whosoever remaineth in any place where he sojourneth, let the men of his place help him with silver, and with gold, and with goods, and with beasts, beside the freewill offering for the house of God that is in Jerusalem. Then rose up the chief of the fathers of Judah and Benjamin, and the priests, and the Levites, with all them whose spirit God had raised, to go up to build the house of the Lord which is in Jerusalem." -- Ezra 1:1-5
"So the priests, and the Levites, and some of the people, and the singers, and the porters, and the Nethinims, dwelt in their cities, and all Israel in their cities." -- Ezra 2:70
"And when the seventh month was come, and the children of Israel were in the cities, the people gathered themselves together as one man to Jerusalem." -- Ezra 3:1
At the temple dedication, Ezra recorded that there was a sin offering for
all twelve tribes:
"And this house was finished on the third day of the month Adar, which was in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the king. And the children of Israel, the priests, and the Levites, and the rest of the children of the captivity, kept the dedication of this house of God with joy. And offered at the dedication of this house of God an hundred bullocks, two hundred rams, four hundred lambs; and for a sin offering for all Israel, twelve he goats, according to the number of the tribes of Israel." -- Ezra 6:15-17
And this passage explains that those of the Assyrian captivity--the northern ten tribes of Israel--were also part of the return and restoration:
"And the children of Israel, which were come again out of captivity, and all such as had separated themselves unto them from the filthiness of the heathen of the land, to seek the Lord God of Israel, did eat, And kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with joy: for the Lord had made them joyful, and turned the heart of the king of Assyria unto them, to strengthen their hands in the work of the house of God, the God of Israel." -- Ezra 6:21-22
That last passage could only be referring to the northern ten tribes of Israel who were carried away by the Assyrians prior to Judah being carried away by the Babylonians (which was prior to the Babylonians defeating Assyria). Therefore, all twelve tribes were allowed to return; and many did.
Note that Ezra was not referring to every child of Israel, since some did not return, but preferred to remain in the areas of their former captivity. That is confirmed by the
second regathering, which occurred during the ministry of the Lord and his Apostles when they sought out the lost sheep of the house of Israel (Matt 10:6 & 15:24):
"And in that day there shall be a root of Jesse, which shall stand for an ensign of the people; to it shall the Gentiles seek: and his rest shall be glorious. And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people. . ." - Isa 11:10-11
After the return and rejoining of the kingdom, Israel experienced many years of peace (about 300 years), until it sinned and broke the covenant (again). Then, about 175 BC, the Lord sent Antiochus IV (aka, Gog, the chief prince of Magog) to punish them (Eze 38 & 39).
Notice that sometimes Ezra mentions the children of Israel and the rest (the Jews); and other times he mentions the Jews and the rest (Israel). Therefore, Ezra still recognized the two separate kingdoms at that time (as Israel and Judah), even though they had been combined under the banner of Judah (Eze 37:19 LXX).
By the first century, they were all called the generic name of "Jew", regardless of tribe. But the tribes other than Judah were singled out in the New Testament, individually or all, from time to time:
"And there was one Anna, a prophetess, the daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser: she was of a great age, and had lived with an husband seven years from her virginity;" -- Luke 2:36
"James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad, greeting." -- Jas 1:1
Paul included himself as an "Israelite", first, and in particular made a point that all twelve tribes were already part of the Church:
"And now I stand and am judged for the hope of the promise made of God, unto our fathers: Unto which promise our twelve tribes, instantly serving God day and night, hope to come. For which hope's sake, king Agrippa, I am accused of the Jews." -- Acts 26:6-7
"I say then, Hath God cast away his people? God forbid. For I also am an Israelite, of the seed of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin. God hath not cast away his people which he foreknew." -- Rom 11:1-2
But the most revealing is Peter's sermon on the day of Pentecost, and shortly thereafter. Peter spoke as if all the tribes were present:
"And there were dwelling at Jerusalem Jews, devout men, out of every nation under heaven . . . Ye men of Israel, hear these words; Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of God among you by miracles and wonders and signs, which God did by him in the midst of you, as ye yourselves also know: . . . Therefore let all the house of Israel know assuredly, that God hath made the same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ. . . For the promise is unto you, and to your children, and to all that are afar off, even as many as the Lord our God shall call." -- Acts 2:5, 22, 36, 39
"Ye are the children of the prophets, and of the covenant which God made with our fathers, saying unto Abraham, And in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed. Unto you first God, having raised up his Son Jesus, sent him to bless you, in turning away every one of you from his iniquities." -- Acts 3:25-26
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